Experimental Techniques in Materials and Mechanics – C. Suryanarayana – 1st Edition

Preface
Acknowledgments
Author
Chapter 1 Introduction
1.1 Materials Science and Engineering1
1.2 Structure
1.2.1 Crystal Structure
1.2.2 Microstructure
1.3 Properties
1.4 Outline of the Book
References
Chapter 2 X-Ray Diffraction
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Crystal Structure
2.2.1 Bravais Lattices
2.2.2 Lattice Planes
2.2.2.1 Indexing of Planes in Hexagonal Crystals
2.2.3 Lattice Directions
2.2.4 Conversion from Three-Index to Four-Index System
2.2.5 Structure Determination
2.3 Production of X-Rays
2.3.1 Continuous Radiation
2.3.2 Characteristic Radiation
2.4 Absorption of X-Rays
2.5 Bragg Equation
2.6 Diffraction Angles
2.7 Intensities of Diffracted Beams
2.7.1 Atomic Scattering Factor
2.7.2 Structure Factor
2.8 XRD Equipment
2.8.1 X-Ray Source
2.8.2 The Specimen
2.8.3 X-Ray Detector
2.9 Examination of a Typical XRD Pattern
2.10 Crystal Structure Determination
2.11 Indexing the XRD Pattern
2.11.1 Comparison with a Calculated or Standard XRD Pattern
2.11.2 Relationship between sin2 ? and hk? Values
2.11.3 Analytical Approach
2.11.4 Identification of the Bravais Lattice
2.12 Differentiation between SC and BCC Lattices
2.13. .Comparison with Electron and Neutron Diffraction
2.13.1 Electron Diffraction
2.13.2 Neutron Diffraction
2.14 Experimental Procedure
Exercises
Further Reading
Chapter 3 Optical Microscopy
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Principle of the Optical Microscope
3.3 Components of the Microscope
3.3.1 Light Source
3.3.1.1 Tungsten-Filament Lamp
3.3.1.2 Quartz–Halogen Lamp
3.3.1.3 Xenon Lamp
3.3.1.4 D.C. Carbon Arc
3.3.2 Lens Aberrations
3.3.3 Objective Lens
3.3.3.1 Types of Objective Lenses
3.3.3.2 Properties of Objective Lenses
3.3.4 Eyepiece
3.4 Microscopic Observation
3.5 Information Derivable from the Microstructure
3.5.1 Number of Phases
3.5.2 Grain Shape
3.5.3 Grain Size
3.5.4 Volume Fraction of Phases
3.5.5 Chemical Composition
3.6 Specimen Preparation for Microscopic Examination
3.6.1 Sectioning and Mounting
3.6.1.1 Sectioning
3.6.1.2 Mounting
3.6.2 Grinding
3.6.3 Polishing
3.6.4 Etching
3.7 Some Typical Microstructures
3.7.1 Nonferrous Alloy Samples
3.7.2 Ferrous Alloy Samples
3.8 Precautions
3.9 Experimental Procedure
Exercises
Further Reading
Chapter 4 Scanning Electron Microscopy
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Basic Design of the SEM
4.3 Electron Source
4.4 Electron Beam–Specimen Interactions
4.4.1 Secondary Electrons
4.4.2 Backscattered Electrons
4.4.3 X-Rays
4.5 Specimen Preparation
4.6 Applications
4.6.1 Fractography
4.6.2 Microstructural Features
4.7 Experimental Procedure
Exercises
Further Reading
Chapter 5 The Iron–Carbon Phase Diagram and Microstructures of Steels
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Phase Diagrams
5.3 Representation of Phase Diagrams
5.4 The Phase Rule
5.5 Application of the Phase Rule
5.5.1 Determination of Compositions of Phases
5.5.2 Determination of Amounts of Phases
5.6 Derivation of Lever Rule
5.7 The Iron–Carbon Phase Diagram
5.7.1 Solid Solubility Limits
5.7.2 Special Features of the Fe–C Phase Diagram
5.7.3 Invariant Reactions
5.8 Cooling Behavior and Microstructural Development
5.8.1 Hypoeutectoid (0.2 wt% C) Steel
5.8.2 Eutectoid (0.76 wt% C) Steel
5.8.3 Hypereutectoid (1.1 wt% C) Steel
5.9 Differentiation between Proeutectoid Ferrite and Proeutectoid Cementite
5.10 Microstructural Observation
5.11 Experimental Procedure
Exercises
Further Reading

Chapter 6 Heat Treatment of Steels
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Reaction Rates
6.2.1 Rate of Nucleation
6.2.2 Rate of Growth and Rate of Transformation
6.3 Isothermal Transformation Diagrams
6.4 Transformation Products
6.4.1 Pearlite
6.4.2 Bainite
6.4.3 Martensite
6.4.4 Morphology of Martensite
6.4.5 Mechanism of Martensite Formation
6.5 Retained Austenite
6.6 Isothermal Treatments
6.7 Effect of Alloying Elements on the T–T–T Diagram
6.8 Continuous Cooling Transformation Diagrams
6.9 Types of Heat Treatment
6.9.1 Annealing
6.9.2 Normalizing
6.9.3 Quenching
6.9.4 Tempering
6.10 Temper Embrittlement
6.11 Properties of Heat-Treated Steels
6.12 Experimental Procedure
Exercise
Further Reading
Chapter 7 Hardenability of Steels
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Definition of Hardenability
7.3 Distribution of Hardness
7.4 Severity of Quench
7.5 Grossmann Test
7.6 Jominy End-Quench Test
7.7 Parameters Affecting Hardenability
7.7.1 Austenitic Grain Size
7.7.2 Carbon Content
7.7.3 Alloying Elements
7.7.4 Use of Multiplying Factors
7.8 Jominy Tests and Continuous Cooling Transformation Diagrams
7.9 Hardness Tester to Be Used
7.10 Jominy Test for Nonferrous Alloys
7.11 Some Comments
7.12 Experimental Procedure
7.13 Results
7.14 Additional Experiment
Exercises
Further Reading
Chapter 8 Hardness Testing
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Types of Hardness Measurements
8.3 Scratch Hardness Measurement
8.4 Rebound Hardness Measurement
8.5 The Durometer Test
8.6 Indentation Hardness Measurement
8.7 Brinell Hardness Testing
8.7.1 Principle
8.7.2 Indenters and Loads
8.7.3 Hardness Designation
8.7.4 Advantages and Disadvantages
8.7.5 Precautions
8.7.6 General Observations
8.8 Rockwell Hardness Testing
8.8.1 Principle
8.8.2 Indenters and Loads
8.8.3 Rockwell Scales
8.8.4 Superficial Testing
8.8.5 Hardness Designation
8.8.6 Anvils
8.8.7 Precautions
8.8.8 Advantages and Disadvantages
8.9 Vickers Hardness Testing
8.9.1 Principle
8.9.2 Indenter
8.9.3 The Test
8.9.4 Hardness Designation
8.9.5 Precautions
8.9.6 Advantages and Disadvantages
8.10 Microhardness Testing
8.10.1 Principle
8.10.2 Indenters
8.10.3 The Test
8.10.4 Hardness Designation
8.10.5 Comparison between Vickers and Knoop Microindentation Tests
8.10.6 Precautions
8.11 Nanoindentation Testing
8.11.1 Indenters and Loads
8.11.2 The Test
8.11.3 Analysis of Data
8.12 General Observations
8.12.1 Reproducibility
8.12.2 Surface Preparation
8.12.3 Minimum Thickness of Test Section
8.12.4 Minimum Spacing between Indentations
8.13 Correlations
8.13.1 Brinell versus Vickers Hardness Numbers
8.13.2 Relationship between Strength and Hardness
8.14 Experimental Procedure
8.15 Observations
8.16 Additional Experiments
8.16.1 Influence of Cold Working
8.16.2 Influence of Annealing on a Cold-Worked Metal.
8.16.3 Influence of Alloying Additions
8.16.4 Microhardness of Different Phases.
8.16.5 Influence of Aging on the Hardness of a Supersaturated Solid Solution Alloy
Exercises
Further Reading
Chapter 9 Tensile Testing
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Measurement of Strength
9.3 Basic Definitions
9.3.1 Stress
9.3.2 Strain
9.3.3 True Stress and True Strain
9.4 Deformation Behavior
9.4.1 Elastic Deformation
9.4.2 Plastic Deformation
9.4.3 Elastic Strain Recovery
9.4.4 Strain Hardening
9.4.5 Anelasticity
9.5 The Tensile Test
9.6 Properties Obtained from the Tensile Test
9.6.1 Proportional Limit
9.6.2 Yield Strength
9.6.3 Young’s Modulus
9.6.4 Poisson’s Ratio
9.6.5 Ultimate Tensile Strength
9.6.6 Necking
9.6.7 Fracture Strength
9.6.8 Ductility
9.6.9 Toughness
9.6.10 Resilience
9.7 True Stress versus True Strain Curve
9.8 General Observations
9.9 Influence of Variables on Tensile Properties
9.9.1 Chemical Composition
9.9.2 Microstructure
9.9.3 Temperature
9.9.4 Heat Treatment
9.9.5 Prior History of Plastic Deformation
9.9.6 Strain Rate
9.9.7 Anisotropy
9.10 Experimental Procedure
9.11 Observations
9.12 Results
9.13 Additional Experiment
Exercises
Further Reading
Chapter 10 Impact Testing
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Impact-Testing Techniques
10.2.1 Charpy Impact Test
10.2.2 Izod Impact Test
10.3 Ductile–Brittle Transition.
10.4 Determination of Ductile–Brittle Transition Temperature
10.5 Effect of Variables on Impact Energy
10.5.1 Notch Sensitivity
10.5.2 Configuration of the Notch
10.5.3 Size of Specimen
10.5.4 Rate of Application of Energy
10.5.5 Crystal Structure of Material
10.5.6 Chemical Composition
10.5.7 Grain Size
10.5.8 Irradiation
10.5.9 Heat Treatment
10.6 Precautions
10.7 Correlations with Other Mechanical Properties
10.8 DBTT in Nonmetallic Materials
10.9 Experimental Procedure
10.10 Observations
Exercises
Further Reading
Chapter 11 Fatigue Testing
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Definitions
11.3 Fatigue Testing
11.4 Some Typical Examples of Fatigue Failure
11.5 Fatigue Failure Mechanism
11.6 Factors Affecting the Fatigue Strength of Materials396
11.6.1 Stress Concentrators
11.6.2 Rough Surfaces
11.6.3 Surface Condition
11.6.4 Corrosion and Environmental Effects
11.7 Fracture Mechanics Approach
11.8 Correlations between Fatigue Strength and Other Mechanical Properties.
11.9 Precautions
11.10 Experimental Procedure
11.11 Additional Experiments
Exercises
Further Reading
Chapter 12 Creep Testing
12.1 Introduction
12.2 The Creep Test
12.3 The Creep Curve
12.3.1 Primary or Stage I Creep
12.3.2 Secondary or Stage II Creep
12.3.3 The Tertiary or Stage III Creep
12.4 Effect of Stress and Temperature
2.5 Creep-Rupture Test
12.6 Creep Resistance Criteria
12.7 Larson–Miller Parameter
12.8 Creep in Ceramic Materials
12.9 Creep in Polymeric Materials
12.10 Experimental Procedure
Exercises
Further Reading