Fundamentals of Heterocyclic Chemistry: Importance in Nature and in the Synthesis of Pharmaceuticals – Louis D. Quin, John A. Tyrell – 1st Edition

LIST OF SYMBOLS
1. Introduction
Learning Objectives
1.1 Historical Perspective
1.2 Materials Science and Engineering
1.3 Why Study Materials Science and Engineering?
1.4 Classification of Materials
1.5 Advanced Materials
1.6 Modern Materials’ Needs
References
2. Atomic Structure and Interatomic Bonding
Learning Objectives
2.1 Introduction
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
2.2 Fundamental Concepts
2.3 Electrons in Atoms
2.4 The Periodic Table
ATOMIC BONDING IN SOLIDS
2.5 Bonding Forces and Energies
2.6 Primary Interatomic Bonds
2.7 Secondary Bonding or Van der Waals Bonding
2.8 Molecules
Summary
Important Terms and Concepts
References
Questions and Problems

3. Structures of Metals and Ceramics
Learning Objectives
3.1 Introduction
CRYSTAL STRUCTURES
3.2 Fundamental Concepts
3.3 Unit Cells
3.4 Metallic Crystal Structures
3.5 Density Computations—Metals
3.6 Ceramic Crystal Structures
3.7 Density Computations—Ceramics
3.8 Silicate Ceramics
• The Silicates (CD-ROM) S-1
3.9 Carbon
• Fullerenes (CD-ROM) S-3
3.10 Polymorphism and Allotropy
3.11 Crystal Systems
CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC DIRECTIONS AND PLANES
3.12 Crystallographic Directions
3.13 Crystallographic Planes
3.14 Linear and Planar Atomic Densities
(CD-ROM) S-4
3.15 Close-Packed Crystal Structures
CRYSTALLINE AND NONCRYSTALLINE MATERIALS
3.16 Single Crystals
3.17 Polycrystalline Materials
3.18 Anisotropy
3.19 X-Ray Diffraction: Determination of Crystal Structures (CD-ROM) S-6
3.20 Noncrystalline Solids
Summary
Important Terms and Concepts
References
Questions and Problems

4. Polymer Structures
Learning Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Hydrocarbon Molecules
4.3 Polymer Molecules
4.4 The Chemistry of Polymer Molecules
4.5 Molecular Weight
4.6 Molecular Shape
4.7 Molecular Structure
4.8 Molecular Configurations
(CD-ROM) S-11
4.9 Thermoplastic and Thermosetting Polymers
4.10 Copolymers
4.11 Polymer Crystallinity
4.12 Polymer Crystals
Summary
Important Terms and Concepts
References
Questions and Problems
5. Imperfections in Solids
Learning Objectives
5.1 Introduction
POINT DEFECTS
5.2 Point Defects in Metals
5.3 Point Defects in Ceramics
5.4 Impurities in Solids
5.5 Point Defects in Polymers
5.6 Specification of Composition
• Composition Conversions
(CD-ROM) S-14
MISCELLANEOUS IMPERFECTIONS
5.7 Dislocations—Linear Defects
5.8 Interfacial Defects
5.9 Bulk or Volume Defects
5.10 Atomic Vibrations
MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION
5.11 General
5.12 Microscopic Techniques (CD-ROM) S-17
5.13 Grain Size Determination
Summary
Important Terms and Concepts
References
Questions and Problems
6. Diffusion
Learning Objectives
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Diffusion Mechanisms
6.3 Steady-State Diffusion
6.4 Nonsteady-State Diffusion
6.5 Factors That Influence Diffusion
6.6 Other Diffusion Paths
6.7 Diffusion in Ionic and Polymeric Materials
Summary
Important Terms and Concepts
References
Questions and Problems

7. Mechanical Properties
Learning Objectives
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Concepts of Stress and Strain
ELASTIC DEFORMATION
7.3 Stress–Strain Behavior
7.4 Anelasticity
7.5 Elastic Properties of Materials
7.6 Tensile Properties
7.7 True Stress and Strain
7.8 Elastic Recovery During Plastic Deformation
7.9 Compressive, Shear, and Torsional Deformation
MECHANICAL BEHAVIOR—CERAMICS
7.10 Flexural Strength
7.11 Elastic Behavior
7.12 Influence of Porosity on the Mechanical
Properties of Ceramics (CD-ROM) S-22
MECHANICAL BEHAVIOR—POLYMERS
7.13 Stress–Strain Behavior
7.14 Macroscopic Deformation
7.15 Viscoelasticity (CD-ROM) S-22
HARDNESS AND OTHER MECHANICAL PROPERTY CONSIDERATIONS
7.16 Hardness
7.17 Hardness of Ceramic Materials
7.18 Tear Strength and Hardness of Polymers
PROPERTY VARIABILITY AND DESIGN/SAFETY FACTORS
7.19 Variability of Material Properties
Computation of Average and Standard
Deviation Values (CD-ROM) S-28
7.20 Design/Safety Factors
Summary
Important Terms and Concepts
References
Questions and Problems
8. Deformation and Strengthening Mechanisms
Learning Objectives
8.1 Introduction
DEFORMATION MECHANISMS FOR METALS
8.2 Historical
8.3 Basic Concepts of Dislocations
8.4 Characteristics of Dislocations
8.5 Slip Systems
8.6 Slip in Single Crystals (CD-ROM) S-31
8.7 Plastic Deformation of Polycrystalline Metals ¿
8.8 Deformation by Twinning
(CD-ROM) S-34
MECHANISMS OF STRENGTHENING IN METALS
8.9 Strengthening by Grain Size Reduction
8.10 Solid-Solution Strengthening
8.11 Strain Hardening
RECOVERY, RECRYSTALLIZATION, AND GRAIN GROWTH
8.12 Recovery
8.13 Recrystallization
8.14 Grain Growth
DEFORMATION MECHANISMS FOR CERAMIC MATERIALS
8.15 Crystalline Ceramics
8.16 Noncrystalline Ceramics
MECHANISMS OF DEFORMATION AND FOR STRENGTHENING OF POLYMERS
8.17 Deformation of Semicrystalline Polymers
8.18a Factors That Influence the Mechanical Properties of Semicrystalline Polymers
[Detailed Version (CD-ROM)] S-35
8.18b Factors That Influence the Mechanical Properties of Semicrystalline Polymers
(Concise Version)
8.19 Deformation of Elastomers
Summary
Important Terms and Concepts
References
Questions and Problems

9. Failure
Learning Objectives
9.1 Introduction
FRACTURE
9.2 Fundamentals of Fracture
9.3 Ductile Fracture
Fractographic Studies (CD-ROM) S-38
9.4 Brittle Fracture
9.5a Principles of Fracture Mechanics
[Detailed Version (CD-ROM)] S-38
9.5b Principles of Fracture Mechanics (Concise Version)
9.6 Brittle Fracture of Ceramics
Static Fatigue (CD-ROM) S-53
9.7 Fracture of Polymers
9.8 Impact Fracture Testing
9.9 Cyclic Stresses
9.10 The S–N Curve
9.11 Fatigue in Polymeric Materials
9.12a Crack Initiation and Propagation
[Detailed Version (CD-ROM)] S-54
9.12b Crack Initiation and Propagation (Concise Version)
9.13 Crack Propagation Rate(CD-ROM) S-57
9.14 Factors That Affect Fatigue Life
9.15 Environmental Effects (CD-ROM) S-62 CREEP
9.16 Generalized Creep Behavior
9.17a Stress and Temperature Effects [Detailed Version (CD-ROM)] S-63
9.17b Stress and Temperature Effects (ConciseCVersion)
9.18 Data Extrapolation Methods (CD-ROM) S-65
9.19 Alloys for High-Temperature Use
9.20 Creep in Ceramic and Polymeric Materials
Summary
Important Terms and Concepts
References
Questions and Problems

10 Phase Diagrams
Learning Objectives
10.1 Introduction
DEFINITIONS AND BASIC CONCEPTS
10.2 Solubility Limit
10.3 Phases
10.4 Microstructure
10.5 Phase Equilibria
EQUILIBRIUM PHASE DIAGRAMS
10.6 Binary Isomorphous Systems
10.7 Interpretation of Phase Diagrams
10.8 Development of Microstructure in Isomorphous Alloys (CD-ROM) S-67
10.9 Mechanical Properties of Isomorphous Alloys
10.10 Binary Eutectic Systems 292
10.11 Development of Microstructure in Eutectic Alloys (CD-ROM) S-70
10.12 Equilibrium Diagrams Having Intermediate Phases or Compounds
10.13 Eutectoid and Peritectic Reactions
10.14 Congruent Phase Transformations
10.15 Ceramic Phase Diagrams (CD-ROM) S-77
10.16 Ternary Phase Diagrams
10.17 The Gibbs Phase Rule (CD-ROM) S-81
THE IRON –CARBON SYSTEM
10.18 The Iron – Iron Carbide (Fe –Fe3C) Phase Diagram
10.19 Development of Microstructures in Iron –Carbon Alloys
10.20 The Influence of Other Alloying Elements (CD-ROM) S-83
Summary
Important Terms and Concepts
References
Questions and Problems
11 Phase Transformations Learning Objectives
11.1 Introduction
PHASE TRANSFORMATIONS IN METALS
11.2 Basic Concepts
11.3 The Kinetics of Solid-State Reactions
11.4 Multiphase Transformations
MICROSTRUCTURAL AND PROPERTY CHANGES IN IRON –CARBON ALLOYS
11.5 Isothermal Transformation Diagrams
11.6 Continuous Cooling Transformation Diagrams (CD-ROM) S-85
11.7 Mechanical Behavior of Iron –Carbon Alloys
11.8 Tempered Martensite
11.9 Review of Phase Transformations for Iron –Carbon Alloys
PRECIPITATION HARDENING
11.10 Heat Treatments
11.11 Mechanism of Hardening
11.12 Miscellaneous Considerations
CRYSTALLIZATION, MELTING, AND GLASS TRANSITION PHENOMENA IN POLYMERS
11.13 Crystallization
11.14 Melting
11.15 The Glass Transition
11.16 Melting and Glass Transition Temperatures
11.17 Factors That Influence Melting and Glass Transition Temperatures (CD-ROM) S-87
Summary
Important Terms and Concepts
References
Questions and Problems
12. Electrical Properties
Learning Objectives
12.1 Introduction
ELECTRICAL CONDUCTION
12.2 Ohm’s Law
12.3 Electrical Conductivity
12.4 Electronic and Ionic Conduction
12.5 Energy Band Structures in Solids
12.6 Conduction in Terms of Band and Atomic Bonding Models
12.7 Electron Mobility
12.8 Electrical Resistivity of Metals
12.9 Electrical Characteristics of Commercial Alloys
SEMICONDUCTIVITY
12.10 Intrinsic Semiconduction
12.11 Extrinsic Semiconduction
12.12 The Temperature Variation of Conductivity and Carrier Concentration
12.13 The Hall Effect (CD-ROM) S-91
12.14 Semiconductor Devices (CD-ROM) S-93
ELECTRICAL CONDUCTION IN IONIC CERAMICS AND IN POLYMERS
12.15 Conduction in Ionic Materials
12.16 Electrical Properties of Polymers
DIELECTRIC BEHAVIOR
12.17 Capacitance (CD-ROM) S-99
12.18 Field Vectors and Polarization
(CD-ROM) S-101
12.19 Types of Polarization (CD-ROM) S-105
12.20 Frequency Dependence of the Dielectric Constant (CD-ROM) S-106
12.21 Dielectric Strength (CD-ROM) S-107
12.22 Dielectric Materials (CD-ROM) S-107
OTHER ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF MATERIALS
12.23 Ferroelectricity (CD-ROM) S-108
12.24 Piezoelectricity (CD-ROM) S-109
Summary
Important Terms and Concepts
References
Questions and Problems

13. Types and Applications of Materials
Learning Objectives
13.1 Introduction
TYPES OF METAL ALLOYS
13.2 Ferrous Alloys
13.3 Nonferrous Alloys
TYPES OF CERAMICS
13.4 Glasses
13.5 Glass–Ceramics
13.6 Clay Products
13.7 Refractories
Fireclay, Silica, Basic, and Special
Refractories
(CD-ROM) S-110
13.8 Abrasives
13.9 Cements
13.10 Advanced Ceramics (CD-ROM) S-111
13.11 Diamond and Graphite
TYPES OF POLYMERS
13.12 Plastics
13.13 Elastomers
13.14 Fibers
13.15 Miscellaneous Applications
13.16 Advanced Polymeric Materials(CD-ROM) S-113
Summary 434
Important Terms and Concepts 435
References 435
Questions and Problems 436
Chapters 14 through 21 discuss just supplementary topics, and are found only on the CD-ROM (and not in print)
14. Synthesis, Fabrication, and Processing
of Materials (CD-ROM) S-118
Learning Objectives S-119
14.1 Introduction S-119
FABRICATION OF METALS S-119
14.2 Forming Operations S-119
14.3 Casting S-121
14.4 Miscellaneous Techniques S-122
THERMAL PROCESSING OF METALS S-124
14.5 Annealing Processes S-124
14.6 Heat Treatment of Steels S-126
FABRICATION OF CERAMIC MATERIALS S-136
14.7 Fabrication and Processing of Glasses S-137
14.8 Fabrication of Clay Products S-142
14.9 Powder Pressing S-145
14.10 Tape Casting S-149
SYNTHESIS AND FABRICATION OF POLYMERS
S-149
14.11 Polymerization S-150
14.12 Polymer Additives S-151
14.13 Forming Techniques for Plastics S-153
14.14 Fabrication of Elastomers S-155
14.15 Fabrication of Fibers and Films S-155
Summary S-156
Important Terms and Concepts S-157
References S-158
Questions and Problems S-158
15. Composites (CD-ROM) S-162
Learning Objectives S-163
15.1 Introduction S-163
PARTICLE-REINFORCED COMPOSITES S-165
15.2 Large-Particle Composites S-165
15.3 Dispersion-Strengthened Composites
S-169
FIBER-REINFORCED COMPOSITES S-170
15.4 Influence of Fiber Length S-170
15.5 Influence of Fiber Orientation and
Concentration S-171
15.6 The Fiber Phase S-180
15.7 The Matrix Phase S-180
15.8 Polymer–Matrix Composites S-182
15.9 Metal–Matrix Composites S-185
15.10 Ceramic–Matrix Composites S-186
15.11 Carbon–Carbon Composites S-188
15.12 Hybrid Composites S-189
15.13 Processing of Fiber-Reinforced
Composites S-189
STRUCTURAL COMPOSITES S-195
15.14 Laminar Composites S-195
15.15 Sandwich Panels S-196
Summary S-196
Important Terms and Concepts S-198
References S-198
Questions and Problems S-199
16. Corrosion and Degradation of
Materials (CD-ROM) S-204
Learning Objectives S-205
16.1 Introduction S-205
CORROSION OF METALS S-205
16.2 Electrochemical Considerations S-206
16.3 Corrosion Rates S-212
16.4 Prediction of Corrosion Rates S-214
16.5 Passivity S-221
16.6 Environmental Effects S-222
16.7 Forms of Corrosion S-223
16.8 Corrosion Environments S-231
16.9 Corrosion Prevention S-232
16.10 Oxidation S-234
CORROSION OF CERAMIC MATERIALS S-237
DEGRADATION OF POLYMERS S-237
16.11 Swelling and Dissolution S-238
16.12 Bond Rupture S-238
16.13 Weathering S-241
Summary S-241
Important Terms and Concepts S-242
References S-242
Questions and Problems S-243

17. Thermal Properties (CD-ROM) S-247
Learning Objectives S-248
17.1 Introduction S-248
17.2 Heat Capacity S-248
17.3 Thermal Expansion S-250
17.4 Thermal Conductivity S-253
17.5 Thermal Stresses S-256
Summary S-258
Important Terms and Concepts S-259
References S-259
Questions and Problems S-259
18. Magnetic Properties (CD-ROM) S-263
Learning Objectives S-264
18.1 Introduction S-264
18.2 Basic Concepts S-264
18.3 Diamagnetism and Paramagnetism S-268
18.4 Ferromagnetism S-270
18.5 Antiferromagnetism and
Ferrimagnetism S-272
18.6 The Influence of Temperature on
Magnetic Behavior S-276
18.7 Domains and Hysteresis S-276
18.8 Soft Magnetic Materials S-280
18.9 Hard Magnetic Materials S-282
18.10 Magnetic Storage S-284
18.11 Superconductivity S-287
Summary S-291
Important Terms and Concepts S-292
References S-292
Questions and Problems S-292
19. Optical Properties (CD-ROM) S-297
Learning Objectives S-298
19.1 Introduction S-298
BASIC CONCEPTS S-298
19.2 Electromagnetic Radiation S-298
19.3 Light Interactions with Solids S-300
19.4 Atomic and Electronic Interactions S-301
OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF METALS S-302
OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF NONMETALS S-303
19.5 Refraction S-303
19.6 Reflection S-304
19.7 Absorption S-305
19.8 Transmission S-308
19.9 Color S-309
19.10 Opacity and Translucency in
Insulators S-310
APPLICATIONS OF OPTICAL PHENOMENA S-311
19.11 Luminescence S-311
19.12 Photoconductivity S-312
19.13 Lasers S-313
19.14 Optical Fibers in Communications S-315
Summary S-320
Important Terms and Concepts S-321
References S-321
Questions and Problems S-322

20. Materials Selection and Design
Considerations (CD-ROM) S-324
Learning Objectives S-325
20.1 Introduction S-325
MATERIALS SELECTION FOR A TORSIONALLY
STRESSED CYLINDRICAL SHAFT S-325
20.2 Strength S-326
20.3 Other Property Considerations and the
Final Decision S-331
AUTOMOBILE VALVE SPRING S-332
20.4 Introduction S-332
20.5 Automobile Valve Spring S-334
ARTIFICIAL TOTAL HIP REPLACEMENT S-339
20.6 Anatomy of the Hip Joint S-339
20.7 Material Requirements S-341
20.8 Materials Employed S-343
THERMAL PROTECTION SYSTEM ON THE SPACE SHUTTLE ORBITER S-345
20.9 Introduction S-345
20.10 Thermal Protection System—Design Requirements S-345
20.11 Thermal Protection System—Components S-347
MATERIALS FOR INTEGRATED CIRCUIT PACKAGES S-351
20.12 Introduction S-351
20.13 Leadframe Design and Materials S-353
20.14 Die Bonding S-354
20.15 Wire Bonding S-356
20.16 Package Encapsulation S-358
20.17 Tape Automated Bonding S-360
Summary S-362
References S-363
Questions and Problems S-364
21. Economic, Environmental, and
Societal Issues in Materials Science
and Engineering (CD-ROM) S-368
Learning Objectives S-369
21.1 Introduction S-369
ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS S-369
21.2 Component Design S-370
21.3 Materials S-370
21.4 Manufacturing Techniques S-370
ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIETAL CONSIDERATIONS S-371
21.5 Recycling Issues in Materials Science
and Engineering S-373
Summary S-376
References S-376
Appendix A The International System of Units (SI)
Appendix B Properties of Selected
Engineering Materials
B.1 Density
B.2 Modulus of Elasticity
B.3 Poisson’s Ratio
B.4 Strength and Ductility
B.5 Plane Strain Fracture Toughness
B.6 Linear Coefficient of Thermal Expansion
B.7 Thermal Conductivity
B.8 Specific Heat
B.9 Electrical Resistivity
B.10 Metal Alloy Compositions
Appendix C Costs and Relative Costs for Selected Engineering Materials
Appendix D Mer Structures for Common Polymers
Appendix E Glass Transition and Melting
Temperatures for Common Polymeric
Materials
Glossary
Answers to Selected Problems
Index